Constructivism

After all that I have read and researched for my educational foundation courses thus far, I can conclude that Constructivism = Common Sense. Now I can see why I have been so drawn to the entire philosophy and instructional design practice. Duffy states in Chapter 1 that Constructivism was rooted in objectivism, which makes perfect sense considering how the foundational aspects of both are so closely related and even utilized today in so many ways.

Like my classmates, I also had the "shiny" rainbow vision of education when I was going through college and even after I graduated. I thought that this "thing" that we call teaching would just fall upon me and I would just know what to do and it would be magical. However, what I found out was that instead of rainbows, my time teaching public high school was reminiscent of the Normandy Beach scene in Saving Private Ryan. Lots of casualties, craziness, and causes all going on at one time with me trying to make some sense out of all the chaos.

Instead of fighting to keep my head above water, I should have taken the time to think about what I had learned about constructivism and built upon the foundational knowledge of students, and used this to build a framework that would be relevant and meaningful to my students. Inherently, I am drawn to the technical side of education, and I feel like constructivism has been there, lurking, all along....I just didn't know what to call it. As we learn in our readings and gain a better understanding of the idea, constructivism is proven to be an even greater tool for us as educators to improve our teaching, and make sure our students relate and retain the knowledge we pass along to them. We just have to make sure, like builders, to provide them with an adequate framework to support and hold together the pieces of their lessons.

I'm thinking our cohort's mascot should be a construction worker!

The New Term - Focus on Instructional Design

As I begin this Fall 2011 term at Morehead State, I am enrolled in the Advanced Instructional Design course where we are learning about the inner workings of instructional design and becoming experts in the creation of lessons that will impact students in the most effective way possible.

Instructional design to me is the process of creating most importantly, relevant information that students will be able to absorb and utilize in their courses of study and ultimately, in their lives'. ID forces educators to take a closer and more analytical look at the objectives and goals of the lessons that we teach. By examining these lessons in an analytical way, the design of instruction takes a shape of its' own that begins to build a framework for students to build their knowledge of a subject around.

In a way, instructional design is the most important aspect of the process. Although the teaching process is extremely vital to success of students, if a lesson is not designed to be effective, students will be unable to utilize and synthesize the information that is communicated to them.

Whoops....here is the correct link....

Whoops! Here is the correct link. I apologize for the confusion.

http://prezi.com/_rsuzgx5vsny/agricultural-technology-and-modern-culture/

My "Prezi-Tation" - Agricultural Technology and Modern American Culture

Here is the link to my presentation:
http://prezi.com/_rsuzgx5vsny/edit/

Agricultural Technology's Cultural Impact

Agricultural Technology’s Modern History in the United States

Essential Questions:

• How did the invention of agriculture change human culture? 
• How has the technology changed our culture?

Agriculture has been around since the beginning of time, and was even documented in the first book of the Bible where God entrusts Adam and Eve with the cultivation and caretaking of his most beautiful natural work, The Garden of Eden. It is not documented the methods that were used by Adam and Eve to be stewards of the land God had granted them, however, it is noted that Adam was punished by being cast out of the Garden and God said to him, “Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat food from it all the days of your life. It will produce thorns and thistles for you and you will eat the plants of the field. By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, since from it you were taken; for dust you are and to dust you will return,”  (Genesis 3:17-19 New International Version). Regardless of one’s religious beliefs, it is difficult to deny that even with the modern technological innovations present in agriculture; it is definitely a labor intensive practice that is a dying “art” among citizens of the United States. From the year 2002 to 2007, the United States experienced a decrease of 16,183,216 acres used for farming of any type (United States Department of Agriculture, 2011). With the continued trends in land prices and bureaucratic policies discouraging many small and large-scale operations, agriculture is a practice that is quickly becoming extinct, not because of technological advances but because of the changes in bureaucracy and work ethic developed throughout the past few decades.

Agriculture as a practice, art, and technology has changed the world and touches the life of every person on the planet many times each day. From the food we consume to the clothes we wear, agriculture and the technology surrounding it is evident and omnipresent. The term agriculture is defined as, “the science, art, or practice of cultivating the soil, producing crops, and raising livestock in varying degrees the preparation and marketing of the resulting products,” (Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2011). The word “agriculture” is self-defining as “agri” is Latin for field, land, or farm, and culture is a collection of behaviors and beliefs shared by a population. Because agriculture is such an all-encompassing topic, it is beneficial to examine how agriculture as a technology and agricultural technology has changed the culture of the world, more specifically the culture of the United States in “modern” times, roughly from the 1980’s until present times. Although the discussion of agriculture on a global scale is worthwhile, it would take a much more detailed and thoroughly researched paper to serve the topic and its warranted discussion.

The United States Department of Agriculture oversees many areas of the agricultural arena that are generally localized in many areas, but widespread in others. For example, consumable field crops can cover an array of horticultural products such as corn, soybeans, wheat, sorghum, and rice which produce goods that are harvested for consumption by humans and animals, as well as other products. These types of products are usually grown in the mid-west on larger farms with several hundred to several thousand acres. With land prices soaring, sometimes as high as $10,000 an acre, it is shocking to read from American history, “At all events, farmers were considered so prosperous that the value of farm lands had risen during the decade 1900 to 1910 from an average of $19.30 per acre to $39.50 or slightly more than 100 percent” (Schafer, 1936). Another major agricultural production area in the United States is the raising, breeding, and selling of livestock, which can include cattle, swine, sheep, horses, llamas, alpacas, poultry, goats, and other animals used for their meat, wool, or byproducts. Livestock production is popular in many small farms as machinery and labor costs are more affordable for this type of farming. The production of cotton, hemp, lumber, and other “non-consumable” products make up a very large portion of United States Agriculture as well, and have “mixed” demographical characteristics as crops such as cotton and lumber require incredibly involved and expensive machinery to produce and process, and other products such as hemp require less machinery and input costs similar to small livestock production. Obviously, there are many other agricultural products produced and harvested in the United States and the rest of the world; however these will be the main focus of this cultural study.

Agriculture itself is a technology, which is defined as “a manner of accomplishing a task especially using technical processes, methods, or knowledge” (Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2011). When the earliest man discovered that a seed could be planted that would grow a plant, an animal could be slaughtered for meat, or a cotton plant used to clothe himself, the technology of agriculture was born, as the definition states all of these are processes, methods, or knowledge. When one thinks about agriculture technology, our mind usually turns directly to farm machinery and implements, which is only part of agricultural technology, although probably the most impressive as feats of engineering have taken farming to a level of proportions that our ancestors would not have believed possible. The area of scientific engineering and genetic modification is one that has sparked debate, but more impressively has produced new and innovative breeds of plants and animals that increase and add to the production value and efficiency of livestock farmers worldwide. Although these areas are the most popular and relevant to agriculture today, there are many groundbreaking agricultural technologies in the works that involve elements as simple as gates, hand tools, or grain storage and housing. The fact is, agriculture has experienced changes that are almost impossible to calculate or imagine the implications of in the past century, and with the boom in microcomputers, the Internet, and GPS technologies, since the 1980’s.

Machinery for agriculture dates back to the earliest of civilization and included “tools” such as sticks, rocks, and other primitive objects used to assist in soil cultivation or slaughtering of animals. Even the hands of a person are considered to be agricultural technology, which is part of the psychological reason that farmers and those who have chosen agriculture to become their profession are revered as hard-working, honest, and ethical individuals. With Eli Whitney’s invention of the cotton gin in 1793 and Cyrus McCormick’s mechanical reaper in 1863 (American Inventors, 2008), the field of agricultural technology in the United States began its meteoric rise to become a world leader in agricultural production and innovations, where it remains accompanied by several European nations. Although the tractor is mostly commonly viewed as the most popular piece of agriculture technology, it did not become popular until the machinery and industrialization eras where mass production of this equipment became possible to provide heavy equipment to farms at a reasonable price. John Deere is one of the most famous and profitable companies in America, however this fame came from invention of the moldboard plow instead of the farm tractor as many believe. In fact, “In 1877, the demand for an efficient, accurate corn planter was growing, and two Moline, Illinois, businessmen decided to help meet it. Charles Deere, John Deere's son, and Alvah Mansur, a business partner of the Deere’s for nearly 20 years, established the Deere & Mansur Company to manufacture planters (John Deere, Inc., 2011). As technology has evolved and produced immeasurable innovations, the basic design of most large agriculture machinery has remained constant and only added features instead of basic design.

Science has been the driving force behind agriculture since the beginning of the technology that we know. However, there are many scientific areas of study and practices that are involved with agriculture and the technology surrounding production. The science involved in modern agriculture production and innovations is often one that is seen as controversial and often debated as a result of some genetic modifications and chemical use that provide farmers with increased production and decreased labor costs, which will be discussed in later paragraphs. The United States Department of Agriculture, along with the Food and Drug Administration work together to regulate and research agricultural products, for food and other use, to determine if these products are safe to be available to the public and what restrictions may be applied. Although many Americans seldom think of or give consideration to the actual science behind agriculture, the field of agricultural science is a growing industry that is responsible for touching the lives’ of Americans many times every day.

Ask anyone in America and they will tell you that agriculture has shaped the culture of the American people, and continues to even as economic and political forces are in uproar. All humans must eat to survive, and this is as far as people tend to think about agriculture and the impact it has on the country as a whole. However, agricultural technology provides much more than food, which in itself provides cultural premise and frameworks for different populations and geographic areas of our country and world, agriculture technology provides glue for our milk cartons from corn byproducts to toilet paper from lumber harvested by millions of acres of forests that continue to cover our land. America is known for our rich and eccentric culture, and agriculture is responsible for a substantial portion of that cultural change and drive that defines the United States as a people. We will examine some of those cultural changes and how agriculture has acted as a catalyst for those changes.

The United States in the early Twentieth Century was a hotbed for innovations in mechanization and industrialism breakthroughs, and agriculture was a recipient of a large number of those technologies. During this time, America had only a few major industries, and agriculture was one of the most profitable and cost-effective method for earning a living for many American families who resided outside of cities and small towns. Much of the equipment and machinery operated in the years 1900-1940 approximately was what we would consider primitive today but met the needs of farmers during the time which provided a level of efficiency, although low compared to today’s standards, that was considered to be a vital characteristic of any person or their trade. Those residing in cities and towns were exposed to propaganda provided by the US Government that depicted the boom in agriculture production, which would ultimately send the United States on a fast track to “the good life” for all citizens who could feast upon the goods produced by the nation’s rich soil. However, what was not seen or heard were the horrifying statistics involving the amount of agricultural machinery related deaths and dismemberments from a lack of safety equipment and practices by agricultural workers of the time.

Not exclusive to agriculture, machines and innovations designed during the early to mid-Twentieth century were extremely unsafe and presented various hazards to workers and operators of the equipment designed during the time period. However, in the rush to win the technological “race,” the United States failed to regulate working conditions and therefore bypassed a majority of safety measures that cost thousands of lives, and injured even more as a result of this neglect. Because the number of factory and machine workers were concentrated in cities such as Chicago and New York, labor unions were formed to protect the rights and safety of those employed by many industries, which has changed the landscape of the American working culture forever, as well as having a tremendous sordid past in politics and practices deemed unethical with policy makers worldwide. However, agricultural workers and operators were mostly self-employed or employed by individual farmers, so a union was not practical as unions require numerous employees to become effective, which resulted in a slower response from agriculture in providing safer equipment and practices for its’ workers.

As time passed, and agricultural innovations continued to evolve into more efficient and streamlined processes and machines that made production levels unheard of in prior decades, we have come to a modern time in agriculture where technology has truly infiltrated the field more than ever before and brought new innovations, and debates along with it. Smart phones, machines, and technological advances in the farm machinery of today including tractors and equipment that are operated primarily by technology and sometimes completely operated by computers and similar equipment. For example, John Deere has a proprietary GPS program installed in most of its new tractors called Green Star that provides automatic steering, application, and harvesting applications that are hands-free for farmers. This provides a precision method of farming and tractor operation that cannot be duplicated by even the most veteran equipment operators. At one time, equipment such as back-up cameras, monitoring systems, and automated machinery would have been considered a “future” technology, but is now common-place in most farming operations.

In the past two decades, the practice of agriculture has continued to impact and change the culture of the United States in ways that are immeasurable, and will impact our future generations in ways that one can only imagine. In just the past three decades, the amount of land used for agricultural purposes has decreased sharply and a drive in the “country” is not what it used to be. Urban sprawl has caused the destruction and consumption of land that could be used for farming used to house millions of “suburbanites” and their families. The problem with an increasing population is an increasing problem to find enough land to ensure housing for Americans and their children and grandchildren. Living in the suburbs has become the place to be, and keeping up with the “Jones’s” has become a race to the subdivisions. Instead of flocking to the cities, Americans decided that they could have the best of both worlds by migrating and constructing suburbs close to cities but far enough away to enjoy the “best that nature has to offer.”

With the boom of subdivisions came increased prices for farm land that homeowners and contractors were willing to pay to build “Stepford-like” neighborhoods for their clients to reside in. These increased land prices prompted many farmers to sell their land at increased prices to provide lucrative profits. The sale of land with inflated prices was only a small catalyst of the housing boom and initial devastating crash experienced recently. Not only were homeowners hurt in the price inflation of land, but those aspiring to begin farming to carve out a life working the land that would be completely sufficient to support a family with for many years. However, in most of the United States, such a practice is virtually impossible unless the aspiring farmer inherits land, equipment, and the knowledge to become a successful farmer, as Jim Hightower said, “Little ol' boy in the Panhandle told me the other day you can still make a small fortune in agriculture. Problem is, you got to start with a large one,” (ThinkExist, 2011). The input cost to successfully grow crops and survive from the sale profits of crops and livestock is too great to account for the risk of beginning the practice of farming. As opposed to the humble beginnings that the practice of farming encompassed since the settlement of America, modern agriculture practices and farming have become applications that are almost impossible to successfully accomplish without extremely good luck or an initial amount of start-up capital that can cover the expenses that are inevitable.

Since the cost of starting a farm or agricultural production business has soared, many Americans are turning to the practice of small or “mini” farming, where less than 25 acres are used for the cultivation of an agricultural product or practice. This can mean that farmers are producing anything from llamas to vegetables, or anything in-between. “Small family farms account for most U.S. farms and farm assets. Small family farms (sales less than $250,000) accounted for 90 percent of U.S. farms in 2004. They also held about 68 percent of all farm assets, including 61 percent of the land owned by farms” (Hoppe, Korb, O'Donoghue, & Baker, 2008). With this shift in farming practices, small farming has made agriculture accessible for the average American with a few acres that they would like to utilize for profit. The federal and individual state governments have numerous resources for funding and assistance available for those interested in pursuing agriculture on a smaller scale, and at present, agricultural small farms qualify as a “small business,” and have access to other grants and subsidies that will make their search for adequate funding a smooth and efficient process. The growth of local farmers markets and the rejection of mass produced produce by many individuals have spurred a movement among small communities and towns to provide home grown produce to consumers who are skeptical of the current practices of large farms and their chemical and pesticide usage. With the amount of information now available to consumers, there is adequate information and a case to be made against the use of many chemicals and pesticides used on crops used for food consumption in today’s market.

As mentioned previously, agriculture is an all-encompassing practice and technology that has impacted the lives’ of everyone on the planet, and with that type of impact on a global level, one can correctly assume that there is no shortage of debate over the issues that face agriculture, and the debate involves everyone from the farmer to the consumer and beyond. A debate over the organic process of growing and producing anything from vegetables to cotton is gaining steam as consumers learn about some side-effects of chemical and pesticide use on the products that they consume on a daily basis. “The concept (organic farming) took shape as a movement in the 1960s and as a mainstream market from the early 1990s. This was mostly as a result of public scandals such as the one in 1989 when American researchers announced that Alar or diaminozide, a ripening agent commonly used in apples, was found to have caused tumors in lab animals and was a potential carcinogen,” (Suutari, 2011). Since that time, the organic industry has grown exponentially and gained steam as well-known Hollywood Actors/Actresses as well as Politicians and other notables have joined in the mission to promote organic agriculture and the products produced from the practice.

Although many outsiders feel that organic farming is comparable to farming at the turn of the Twentieth Century, technology such as machinery and equipment is “allowed” to be utilized in every aspect of the process. However, chemicals and pesticides that contain non-naturally occurring substances and additives are strictly prohibited in field crops. In livestock, animals may not be fed any types of grains or feeds that contain non-naturally occurring ingredients or substances, or receive immunizations other than basic naturally occurring shots such as vitamins. The regulations surrounding the labeling of products as “organically certified” by the Food and Drug Administration are extremely rigid and regulated extensively at this point in time. There have been complaints, however that some products are not truly organic, but being sold as such which brings much higher profits as consumers are willing to pay substantially more for the products. The jury is still out on whether organically grown and certified food and products are truly more beneficial for consumers, however it would stand to reason that given the history of the discovery of many negative effects of chemicals on the human body that eventually solid studies will find that same is true with crops grown with chemically treated seeds and pesticides.

Although the organic movement and trend seems to be growing daily, the “chemically-enhanced” method of farming is still prevailing in the United States, and will more than likely remain the norm until positive evidence finds otherwise. However, even with the chemical enhancements developed by scientists and multi-billion dollar companies such as Monsanto, Syngenta, Pioneer, and others, farmers using this technology still struggle with their own group of problems. One of the many emerging problems occurring at present is the evolution of breeds of weeds and pests that are resistant to herbicides and pesticides that have been traditionally used to control their growth and major outbreaks which can cause millions of dollars’ worth of damage to crops and livestock that are effected by. Just as nature works to provide a chance for all species of living thing to evolve, plants and pests have reached points where they are unable to be killed by modern methods and chemical use. Although agricultural scientific technology works to address and solve these problems, nature will continue to evolve and manufacture methods for plants and animals to survive regardless of the circumstances.

With the growth of agriculture and the technological methods to produce higher yields and products, an influx in immigrant labor has become an issue that reaches beyond the field of agriculture and into the political arena causing backlash from voters and citizens, as well as immigrants that have cost thousands of lives’ as a result of those fighting to stay in America, and those who wish them to leave. Granted, not all immigrants are in the United States to earn a living working in agriculture, and there are a major percentage who are in America to traffic illegal substances and commit crimes, however with the United States Constitutional Laws and Amendments, the purpose of those immigrants is not addressed, only the proper procedure to become a United States citizen, which has been bypassed almost unknowingly by the droves of people coming to the country. Many of these immigrants have found work in the agricultural field, working to complete tasks and fill jobs that most Americans would not do. However, this has provided yet another issue of substandard working conditions and pay which has not been regulated as a result of these workers who are willing to perform whatever tasks necessary and take whatever pay is given in order for themselves and their families to stay in America. As this issue becomes an ever-growing concern for almost every American citizen and has been forced to the forefront by the recent assassination attempt on Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords in Arizona, who supports allowing illegal immigrants to gain citizenship status, which is vehemently opposed in much of the Southwest. Unfortunately, agricultural technology is not designed or able to “fix” this issue, but instead technology provides channels of communication to bring this issue to the public.

Agricultural technology is an aspect of life that is ever present and will not ever disappear from our lives’ as long as we continue to eat and consume products, natural or derivatives of such. This is the main reason that every American is responsible for understanding what agricultural technology brings us, and the many things that it has provided to us. If it were not for agricultural innovations, engineering, and technology, the world would be in a mode of starvation at present, as we would not be able to support billions of people without these technologies. The field of farming should be one that is revered, respected, and reserved for those who understand the earth and are good stewards of the bounty that nature provides to those who know how to make these elements work harmoniously together. However, as the population of the earth increases exponentially every year, it is important to ensure that we maintain the land and elements necessary to provide food and goods for all those who inhabit the earth. Technology can provide the methods and machinery in order to most efficiently produce the crops, livestock, and goods that will reap the most benefit and provide the maximum amount of pleasure and products.

Agricultural technology is only as beneficial as the engineers and farmers behind it. To survive as a planet, we must ensure that these professions are filled by the most effective and trained people available. To ensure those people are available, the practices of farming, both traditionally and organically must be supported not only by the government, but by all of those who consume goods provided by farmers, and that would be us all.

Works Cited

American Inventors. (2008). American Inventors: Cyrus McCormick. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from American Inventors: http://www.american-inventor.com/cyrus-mccormick.aspx

Hoppe, R. A., Korb, P., O'Donoghue, E. J., & Baker, D. E. (2008, November 7). Report Summary: Structure and Finances of U.S. Farms Family Report 2007. Retrieved July 2011, 27, from United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service: http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/eib24/eib24_reportsummary.html

John Deere, Inc. (2011). John Deere - The Plowshare. Retrieved July 24, 2011, from John Deere: http://www.deere.com/en_US/docs/Corporate/fans_visitors/publications/plowshare_jun11.pdf

Merriam-Webster, Inc. (2011). Merriam-Webster Dictionary - Agriculture. Retrieved July 11, 2011, from Merriam-Webster: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/agriculture

Schafer, J. (1936). The Social History of American Agriculture. New York: The Macmillan Company.

Suutari, A. (2011). USA/Canada - The Organic Farming Movement in North America. Retrieved July 27, 2011, from The EcoTipping Points Project: Models for Success in a Time of Crisis: http://www.ecotippingpoints.org/our-stories/indepth/usa-canada-sustainable-organic-farming.html

ThinkExist. (2011). Jim Hightower Quotes. Retrieved July 27, 2011, from ThinkExist.com Quotations: http://thinkexist.com/quotation/little_ol-boy_in_the_panhandle_told_me_the_other/211190.html

United States Department of Agriculture. (2011). Land in Farms - Change in Acreage: 2002 to 2007. Retrieved July 24, 2011, from United States Department of Agriculture, National Agriculture Statistics Service: http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2007/Online_Highlights/Ag_Atlas_Maps/Farms/Land_in_Farms_and_Land_Use/07-M078-RGBDot2-largetext.pdf

Cuban Epilogue Discussion

Since I somehow missed the Epilogue (it’s been a CRAZY week), and did the synthesis, I’ll just do the Epilogue here.

To me, Cuban’s Epilogue is one of his most interesting and in-depth chapters. I truly wish he had spent more time discussing the phenomenon in education of continuity versus change that is ever-present. I realize though, that educational technology in the classroom is actually a part of this broader argument that continues to play out in the educational arena. However, when reading the Epilogue, I was reminded of Cuban’s introduction where he states the following points regarding education on page 3:

·         Socialize all children, yet nourish each child’s creativity.

·         Teach the best that the past has to offer, but insure that each child possesses practical skills marketable in the community.

·         Demand obedience to authority, but encourage individual children to think and question.

·         Cultivate cooperation, but prepare children to compete.

All of these statements involve a type of contradiction that cannot be duplicated in any other profession or life experience, short of a child’s natural process of maturing.

Cuban discusses the notion of change quite frequently in his epilogue and examines the educational field’s reaction to change, and the policy makers that seem to force this change upon the teachers and students when the teaching system has relied on the same pedagogical methods passed down for generations. Cuban also points out that changing the pedagogy of teachers involves changes their most basic belief system, which considering the number of teachers in the world is almost an impossible feat. Many will argue, and I tend to agree that there are certain aspects of the classroom environment that do not need to be changed or altered because they have proven effective, and it doesn’t make sense to fix something that isn’t broken. Given, our educational system altogether is broken, but more on an administrative level than anything, which seems to be the case with the American culture at large. Our biggest problem isn’t what’s going on in our homes and classrooms, but the problem is what’s going on in the bureaucratic residences of those who attempt to control every aspect of what goes on in our homes and classrooms. Education is one area, like many other that requires experienced classroom teachers to change and modify classroom issues, experienced elementary principals to change and modify elementary administration, and so on. Do I want a Congressman telling my doctor the way he would like my surgery to be performed? Absolutely not! So, why do we allow decision and policy makers to tell us how to teach when they are many, many years removed from any classroom.

Cuban Synthesis

Cuban Synthesis

Teachers and Machines – by Larry Cuban - ©1986
Katie Hill – EDUC 628

In his book, “Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920,” Larry Cuban writes about the history of technology in the classroom since the early part of the Twentieth Century, and focuses mainly on the use of film, radio, television, and computer use by instructors to teach students. In the introduction to the book, Cuban presents three central questions that guide his writing and give readers a direction to concentrate their thoughts upon. These questions are:

·         Once the new technology was adopted by school districts as appropriate for children, to what degree did teachers use film, radio, and instructional television?

·         What explains the degree of teacher use of these technologies since the 1920’s?

·         Based upon patterns in teacher use of film, radio, and classroom television, what is the likely level of teacher use of computers in the 1980’s, and what is the potential influence of this technology?

Cuban delivers a simple and holistic view of the major educational technology innovations and studies why these are simply regarded as “fads” that have since faded and their use barely remembered. The utilization of these technologies becomes the main focus of Cuban’s book as he seeks to discover the reasons behind lack of use. In the Introduction, Cuban defines useful instruction technology as, “…any device available to teachers for use in instructing students in a more efficient and stimulating manner than the sole use of the teacher’s voice,” (pg. 4). The problem is that although film, radio, and television were considered to be useful, their most efficient uses were not explored as a result of the “fading out” and loss of popularity of the medium.

Although the type of technology involved, Cuban brings about an interesting finding in the studies that he cites, and that is the level of education that technology is used in. For every study discussed, Cuban found that elementary instructors incorporated technology in their classrooms far more often than junior high school or high school teachers, who show decreased use as the grade level of students increases. Although the level of use varies significantly between grade levels, however as pointed out, the overall use of technology is low, and the study findings paint a far different picture than that of the political and popular media culture who would have the public believe that technology is and was an integral classroom component.

There are several reasons that this could be the case, and they are not what many outside of the educational field might tend to believe, which is that teachers are too “stubborn” to learn the new technology or embrace new trends in education, including the use of technology in the classroom. I actually have already outlined and discussed two of these reasons in my discussion of Cuban’s first chapter. In short, I feel that two major reasons for the lack of technology use in the classroom are; bureaucratic processes and paperwork that must be completed and submitted through appropriate channels and pipelines before a piece of technology may be introduced in to the classroom and used to instruct a lesson, and secondly, many times the technology is so complicated to use, set up, troubleshoot, take down and return, that many instructors feel their time is better spent utilizing alternative methods of instruction.

Of course, budget constraints are an obvious barrier to technology use in classrooms that plagues an overwhelming majority of schools today, and spreads to the university level as we experience a tremendous economic crunch. “New” technologies tend to be rather expensive, and without grants to fund multiple technology purchases, teachers often struggle with finding the time and logistics necessary to provide every student exposure to new technology while providing quality instruction to the other 24 students, while everyone is asking for help or instruction during their work. Even with a classroom full of technology for each student, I can attest that as a technology instructor, there are often such learning curves with particular technology or software that instruction becomes a cumbersome task that requires re-writing of the curriculum or course objectives.

Address the commonalities across Cuban, Hughes, and Postman -- that is, what themes and ideas did you find that the three authors shared.

The three books that we have studied in the course, by Cuban, Hughes, and Postman have all addressed technology in very different ways, giving readers a variety of topics for thought and discussion. Although there were definitely differences, such as the opinion of technology as Postman believed that technology was inherently destined to take over the world, Hughes believed that technology should serve as a method of “balancing nature” and re-creating the Earth to an “Edenic state,” and Cuban examines almost exclusively technology in the classroom and the extent to which it is utilized by instructors in the Twentieth Century.

As Postman and Hughes exhibited somewhat polar opposite views of technology, Cuban echoes those notions in a less obvious way providing the reader with a balanced view of technology that is solely devoted to its adoption and utilization in the classroom. Postman’s view of technology was that of a warning to all that at some point, technology would turn against humans and eventually destroy any evidence of human tradition or history at all, and control the human race for eternity. Cuban does not come close to Postman’s scare tactics, but does present the arguments brought forth by many noted people, such as Einstein, Dewey, Kilpatrick and others who had progressive views of education, and especially educational technology. As many of these notables predicted, technologies such as film and radio would become a replacement for teachers, and would be as efficient and perhaps more effective as traditional instruction of the day. In current times, we see this as completely false, and perhaps never will teachers be replaced with machinery even with the many technological advancements that have been made.

With the different opinions of these writers, one theme that I find to be constant across all writings is that exercising caution when implementing and utilizing new technology is the key to preventing potential problems caused by technological innovations. Postman writes almost exclusively about the dangers of technology and how it has ruined culture, however issues a strong warning to future technologies that are released and used by society. Hughes addresses this issue by providing a detailed historical account of failed innovations and their consequences on history and the environment. Cuban discusses the issue of “wasted” classroom technologies that have been purchased but not used by teachers for the past hundred years, and warns that the computer could be the next educational technology fad that wastes time, money, and valuable resources but is mostly ignored by instructors in their classrooms.

What different ideas did Cuban raise?

Cuban’s writings are a terrific resource for teachers because the reader learns many lessons that are directly related to educational technology, and provides a deeper understanding and level of research to address crucial trends in education. Not only are the crucial trends in educational technology identified by Cuban, but he does a remarkable job at bringing out underlying issues that may be causing lack of classroom use. Although Cuban wrote his book in 1986, he looks toward the future to make predictions about the use of computers in the classroom. The predictions that Cuban makes regarding computer classroom use are incorrect, but he does provide a justification for underlying themes in educational technology in the modern classroom.

There are definitely some similarities and underlying themes in Cuban’s writing that relate directly to modern educational practices both in P-12 and post-secondary educational systems. His discussion of the barriers to providing adequate instructional technology equipment and practices in the classroom is the most prominent, where many of our current budget constraints as well as teacher disinterest in these methods cause hindrances for the implementation of technology. Cuban also hits upon the progressives and their very strong push to bring technology into the classroom and almost force the use of this equipment onto teachers and students, which only creates a tension that is unnecessary for the true delivery of lessons and the practice of learning.

In chapter 1, Cuban lists some figures and tables that are relative to the use of many of our technological advances today within the classroom. What comes to mind is the use of interactive tools such as “clickers,” as well as some equipment such as document cameras and/or webcams, and curriculum delivery web based applications that grade student work on a subjective basis with the use of keywords and programming. What I find as an information management instructor is that these are also many times considered “fads,” and technologies that have experienced their 15 minutes of fame, as film and radio were in the early Twentieth Century. However, I cannot say that some of these technologies are relevant and useful to the students and instructor, granted the instructor utilizes these technologies in a “best practices” manner that provides the most relevant instruction to students. There are several of our adjuncts who swear by the curriculum delivery programs that we “tried out” last year, however, I am willing to engage in a very strong debate regarding my feelings of their complete inadequacy and uselessness in the classroom. These adjuncts are good instructors, and apparently have found this technology a “good fit,” for them; however, I detest and cringe at the thought of even trying another piece of technology that resembles this software.

The other theme that Cuban addresses that is directly relatable to today’s classroom is the lack of teacher interest in using some of these technologies. As many educational “experts” who have never taught inside a classroom for one day would claim, this is simply a result of teacher “laziness” or “apathy” about using the technology. From my own experience, I have found that this is far from the truth with the exception of those teachers who are close to retirement and have decided to “coast” and rely on tenure to get them through, which is another topic for another course. Many times, the district has placed so many regulations and stipulations on the use of the technology that instructors simply find their time better spent dedicated to lesson preparation or other classroom duties. The technologies that are current and upcoming are in theory, great ideas and well-intentioned for educational use. However, unless they are being use on a continual basis, the set-up, training for users, and process of use is so time consuming that our time-starved classrooms simply choose to forego the “wasted time,” and choose something more familiar and consistent in our classrooms. There are several methods for solving this issue, from the loosening of regulations imposed by administration, to support staff to perform set-up and break-down tasks while instructors are engaged in other activities with students.

Cuban has discussed and researched many valid reasons why teachers have not adopted and adapted to frequent use of other types of educational technology such as film, radio, and television. However, when the book was published in 1986, the “microcomputer” had yet to make its’ mainstream plunge into American homes, and almost every aspect of life. Cuban had expectations for the computer and predictions that the computer would have a usage very similar to that of film, radio, and television and on page 99, Cuban defends his feelings for this prediction. As with many of Cuban’s other arguments, he follows a similar approach to teacher use that depends on convenience and adaptability along with administrative support and scheduling issues.

For many years, Cuban’s feelings about computer use in the classroom was correct, and widespread use of microcomputers in schools didn’t truly begin until the late 1990’s when the affordability of computers became such that the average middle-class American family could afford to own one in their homes. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, along with many other philanthropic organizations are responsible for ensuring that computers were available to many low-income areas of the country, both rural and urban which furthered the use of personal computers even more. In the 1990’s, there were several computer software programs available for educational use, and as a child, I still remember playing “Oregon Trail,” and “Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?” and being so thrilled at the prospect of having control over my own learning and pace (of course then, I was not aware of that fact). However, the development of the World Wide Web and Internet was picking up speed at a rapid pace, and in a few years exploded onto the scene and has changed the lives of every American.

As the Internet evolved, so did the computer, and in a positive way that allowed more portability and user friendly attributes causing more and more frequent use by everyone, including those in education. Computers provided a type of personal user interaction that was never possible with film, radio, and television. Suddenly with a room full of computers, students took control of their learning and developed a set of skills beyond that of the software program, but began to develop technical skills that came naturally from learning to use a computer and the accompanying software. A new type of curriculum formed and a new teaching profession was born, which is my current profession where instructors teach students to utilize computer applications and learn the hardware technicalities and construction of a computer. Teachers and students became experts and many times, students taught teachers which fostered a sense of collaboration between learners and instructors that has proved to improve student performance in almost any situation.

The development of the computer projector and application software made the personal computer even more relevant and useful in the classroom. Previously, teachers had the ability to find and create materials that would enhance student learning, but there was not a way to share those with the class as a group. With the projector came that ability and opened even more doors to usher the microcomputer and peripherals into the classroom and allowed students to become the masters of these instruments to create their own learning experiences that are tailored to their own learning styles and pace. Since that time, the use of computers in the classroom has exploded, and even the most technologically independent courses, such as history, English, reading and literature have become hosts for new technology products that serve to make these subjects relative to students and their experiences. Cuban was not wrong in his prediction, just a bit under exaggerated in his predictions.

Cuban provides an amazing insight into the attitudes and psychological reasoning behind lack of teacher use of technology in the classroom, which is relatable to almost anyone who has experienced the ills of public education. The issue of teacher energy levels and rhythm is brought to light when Cuban discusses the reluctance by teachers to utilize technology for fear of being labeled as a teacher utilizing technology in order to avoid lecturing or to take a break during the day, which is heavily frowned upon by society and educational administrators currently and in the past.

Cuban says “…while media in classrooms may be inflexible and unreliable, they do offer that teacher cadre of willing users a tiny but important way of coping with energy loss during the day, providing a breath-catching break without calling it so.” Teacher energy rhythm is a commonly ignored issue in classroom studies, and has often been blamed for lack of student achievement. Teachers who were not standing in front of a classroom the entire day were considered to be lazy or ineffective, when that is not always the case. Granted, we have all had that stereotypical gym teacher that reads the newspaper while students run laps or play dodgeball that only stops to blow the whistle when it’s time for a water or bathroom break. That is the extreme end of the spectrum, although, unfortunately most students have experienced one or even several teachers with this attitude and energy level throughout their time in school.

The truth is that educational media can provide a type of “break” for teachers that is often seen as a “lazy” teacher’s escape from students and duties, and maybe it is….but does anyone want to argue that when a human being is exposed to the mental work conditions that teachers deal with on a daily basis that a break of some length is needed? Of course there are those who have never taught that will argue that’s what lunch, recess, and “planning periods,” as if those are secret retreats that teachers with draw to free from students and stress, but unfortunately no such place exists. Cuban very subtly touches on the fact that this break may be a reason for teachers to incorporate technology, simply for the break from students. From experience, if an instructor is going to incorporate technology on a regular basis, getting a break is not the reason…simply because there are too many glitches with technology and student interruptions, etc., that can truly provide a break for technology using instructors.

Teacher energy is definitely worthy of study, and the energy cycles of teachers are no different than that of others or even students. The physical stress that teachers undergo is usually minimal, however the mental and psychological stress is one that can easily cause an instructor to lose energy and become “drained” at certain times of the day, and just like students, teachers need to be re-charged and refreshed as well. We tend to forget that all teachers are humans with very different physical characteristics and body rhythms, which causes different needs for instructors. Perhaps by providing an extended break for teachers away from students and interruptions, higher teacher performance and student learning may take place as a result of a refreshed instructor.

As a technology instructor, seldom have I found a writing that addresses the issue of technology use in the classroom as Cuban does. Although this book is outdated in technological terms, educators experience many of the same dilemmas with classroom technology in modern times. Although the computer has revolutionized the classroom technology arena, and Cuban’s prediction was slightly skewed, the same issues of utilization, convenience, and availability arise in today’s schools, which directly impacts the use of this technology by the instructor just as the previous technologies of film, radio, and television. I would highly recommend this book to anyone working in the educational technology field as it would serve to improve technological services provided by educators to their students and stakeholders.

Cuban - Chapter 4 Discussion

Why do you feel that computers have become so common use in today’s classrooms when film, radio, and television seemed to fail in terms of use?

Cuban has discussed and researched many valid reasons why teachers have not adopted and adapted to frequent use of other types of educational technology such as film, radio, and television. However, when the book was published in 1986, the “microcomputer” had yet to make its’ mainstream plunge into American homes, and almost every aspect of life. Cuban had expectations for the computer and predictions that the computer would have a usage very similar to that of film, radio, and television and on page 99, Cuban defends his feelings for this prediction. As with many of Cuban’s other arguments, he follows a similar approach to teacher use that depends on convenience and adaptability along with administrative support and scheduling issues.

For many years, Cuban’s feelings about computer use in the classroom was correct, and widespread use of microcomputers in schools didn’t truly begin until the late 1990’s when the affordability of computers became such that the average middle-class American family could afford to own one in their homes. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, along with many other philanthropic organizations are responsible for ensuring that computers were available to many low-income areas of the country, both rural and urban which furthered the use of personal computers even more. In the 1990’s, there were several computer software programs available for educational use, and as a child, I still remember playing “Oregon Trail,” and “Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?” and being so thrilled at the prospect of having control over my own learning and pace (of course then, I was not aware of that fact). However, the development of the World Wide Web and Internet was picking up speed at a rapid pace, and in a few years exploded onto the scene and has changed the lives of every American.

As the Internet evolved, so did the computer, and in a positive way that allowed more portability and user friendly attributes causing more and more frequent use by everyone, including those in education. Computers provided a type of personal user interaction that was never possible with film, radio, and television. Suddenly with a room full of computers, students took control of their learning and developed a set of skills beyond that of the software program, but began to develop technical skills that came naturally from learning to use a computer and the accompanying software. A new type of curriculum formed and a new teaching profession was born, which is my current profession where instructors teach students to utilize computer applications and learn the hardware technicalities and construction of a computer. Teachers and students became experts and many times, students taught teachers which fostered a sense of collaboration between learners and instructors that has proved to improve student performance in almost any situation.

The development of the computer projector and application software made the personal computer even more relevant and useful in the classroom. Previously, teachers had the ability to find and create materials that would enhance student learning, but there was not a way to share those with the class as a group. With the projector came that ability and opened even more doors to usher the microcomputer and peripherals into the classroom and allowed students to become the masters of these instruments to create their own learning experiences that are tailored to their own learning styles and pace. Since that time, the use of computers in the classroom has exploded, and even the most technologically independent courses, such as history, English, reading and literature have become hosts for new technology products that serve to make these subjects relative to students and their experiences. Cuban was not wrong in his prediction, just a bit under exaggerated in his predictions.

Have the attitudes of teachers towards technology and adoption in the classroom had any kind of impact on student use or utilization?

Cuban addresses throughout his book and leads readers to the conclusion that one of the main reasons for teacher reluctance toward technology in the classroom is the general attitude that these instructors have toward changes in curriculum and teaching methods. There are many different reasons and many different attitudinal projections that teachers exhibit toward technology, however examining those would become a very tedious task both for Cuban and myself. Instead, I think it is very important to examine how negative attitudes toward technology exhibited by the instructor impact their students.

Granted, there is a large population of instructors who keep a professional attitude at almost all times and students are not exposed to personal feelings or emotions. However, a person’s attitude and feelings toward technology are usually relayed through the observation of that person’s technology use. The same principle is directly related to teachers and their feelings toward technology in the classroom. Students are perceptive, especially when they often spend more hours engaged with their teachers than they do their parents in a typical day. Whether or not a teacher “likes” technology is really not the question here, but does this impact students either positively or negatively?

In The Journal of Technology Education, a study was performed that examined the attitudes of students toward technology as a result of instruction methods, and it was found that although teaching methods had no significant change on student attitude. However, it was found that students’ attitudes toward technology usually form somewhere in the late elementary/early middle grades. This article was written in 1996 when students were usually first exposed to technology in the classroom in the middle grades, so I would suggest that since then, students usually form their opinions and attitudes much earlier, since they are exposed to technology in the classroom at a much earlier age than in the mid-90’s. The link to the article is: http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/v10n1/boser.html .

Although the research found no significant difference, I would contend that there are many students who would be impacted by their teacher’s feelings toward technology in the classroom, and that may affect them for several years if not longer. Teachers are responsible for opening student minds and allowing them to explore different aspects of their environment and culture to provide them with a foundational knowledge to make them successful throughout their lives’. However, many times teachers unknowingly taint students’ attitudes and feelings toward a number of ideas, beliefs, and even objects. If a teacher is respected and adored by students, a natural reaction for students is to imitate or mirror behavior and attitudes, which is a consequence of teacher attitudes toward technology or any idea for that matter, in the classroom. We must guard our personal feelings at times when we deal with impressionable youth, and even adults to ensure that they have the opportunity to form their own opinions absent of the pre-conceived notions that they may be exposed to prior to making their own judgment.

Cuban - Chapter 3 Discussion

Cuban offers a collection of reasons why teachers adopt or fail to adopt innovation. Pick one and discuss it from your own perception/practice.

Cuban does offer a great variety of relevant reasons for teachers’ failure to adopt and utilize technological innovations for the classroom. The area that is more relevant to my current position and profession is the issue of implementation of the innovation. Although I work in the information management cluster, and we drive many of the technological changes and adoptions by the college, we are somewhat limited and always governed by the IT department, who makes sweeping decisions college-wide concerning many of our technology practices and procedures. Cuban brings about a very important issue in this chapter that deals directly with implementation, when administrators and those in higher-up positions make decisions regarding teaching methods and pedagogies when they have little or no classroom experience.

The “snake oil” salesman analogy brings to mind the bureaucratic relationships and kickbacks often enjoyed by administrators and those in decision-making positions. Most of those who are making these decisions do not have bad intentions, and those who tout these products as the next big thing can definitely make the educational technology products seem as if they have the potential to be, but in an overwhelming majority of instances, this is not true. However, this does provide the decision maker with a platform to project an image of an innovator and decision-maker to others that are not aware of the consequences that come from these technology adoptions or implementations.

Our most recent experience comes from a very popular textbook publishing company who came to our program chair a few years ago (before I was hired), and exhibited the benefits of custom textbooks. The benefits were a cost savings to students, faculty/staff having the power to choose content from large textbooks and libraries, customized software, and the power to change the world! (Okay, the last one is slightly exaggerated). So, the faculty in our cluster decided to adopt these customized textbooks and require them for class, and then the problems began to arise. First, the company did not bother to change the chapter numbers in the textbooks, so if you chose to include chapters 3, 4, 6, 8, etc. in your custom book, students actually start on chapter 3, and the page numbers did not coincide with the actual full version of the textbook, which caused confusion unheard of. Secondly, when the term was over, students could not sell their books back to any other place than our college bookstore, which as any other, was a complete rip-off and the bookstore could lowball students because they had no other option of selling them back, which also meant students could only purchase books from our bookstore, which inflated prices to reflect the monopoly. These were only minor issues compared to the custom software which I will discuss next.

This new software that accompanied our textbooks was also “sold” as the next great thing. It was proclaimed to provide virtual training, assessment with automatic grading, testing, resources and videos for every chapter, and some other features not worth mentioning. Wow, so this meant we as instructors only had to “tell” the software what to test and when, plus assign point values and sit back and watch the classes run. Lecturing even became an option. As it turns out, computers cannot grade assessments subjectively no matter how advanced the programming is. So, when students’ grades were very mis-representative of their actual score, teachers had to manually change these and grade them anyway, which was a huge waste of time more than anything. Also, the software was VERY slow, and although it was web based and convenient, this was nothing compared to the amount of time it took to go through the training. Basically, it ended up as a huge disaster than has tainted our faculty hopefully not beyond recovery.

As an instructor, I would definitely consider myself to be one of the small percentages that are users of technology, but I will give credit to our support staff for that accomplishment. Our college has an instructional support unit that functions with tremendous efficiency and takes care of our needs at any day/time and understands that we are on a schedule, so they always show up as soon as you call. This is a very rare phenomenon and I do sincerely appreciate our department and let them know. Were it not for our fantastic team, I cannot honestly say that I would be as willing to implement this technology on such a consistent basis.

There is one area that Cuban touches on but doesn't address directly. What do you think it is? [hint: last line on page 69]

On the last part of page 69, Cuban says “…while media in classrooms may be inflexible and unreliable, they do offer that teacher cadre of willing users a tiny but important way of coping with energy loss during the day, providing a breath-catching break without calling it so.” Teacher energy rhythm is a commonly ignored issue in classroom studies, and has often been blamed for lack of student achievement. Teachers who were not standing in front of a classroom the entire day were considered to be lazy or ineffective, when that is not always the case. Granted, we have all had that stereotypical gym teacher that reads the newspaper while students run laps or play dodgeball that only stops to blow the whistle when it’s time for a water or bathroom break. That is the extreme end of the spectrum, although, unfortunately most students have experienced one or even several teachers with this attitude and energy level throughout their time in school.

The truth is that educational media can provide a type of “break” for teachers that is often seen as a “lazy” teacher’s escape from students and duties, and maybe it is….but does anyone want to argue that when a human being is exposed to the mental work conditions that teachers deal with on a daily basis that a break of some length is needed? Of course there are those who have never taught that will argue that’s what lunch, recess, and “planning periods,” as if those are secret retreats that teachers with draw to free from students and stress, but unfortunately no such place exists. Cuban very subtly touches on the fact that this break may be a reason for teachers to incorporate technology, simply for the break from students. From experience, if an instructor is going to incorporate technology on a regular basis, getting a break is not the reason…simply because there are too many glitches with technology and student interruptions, etc., that can truly provide a break for technology using instructors.

Teacher energy is definitely worthy of study, and the energy cycles of teachers are no different than that of others or even students. The physical stress that teachers undergo is usually minimal, however the mental and psychological stress is one that can easily cause an instructor to lose energy and become “drained” at certain times of the day, and just like students, teachers need to be re-charged and refreshed as well. We tend to forget that all teachers are humans with very different physical characteristics and body rhythms, which causes different needs for instructors. Perhaps by providing an extended break for teachers away from students and interruptions, higher teacher performance and student learning may take place as a result of a refreshed instructor.

Cuban - Chapter 2 Discussion

Cuban reports an interesting pattern in teacher use. Regardless of the technology involved (radio, film, tv), teacher adoption and use remains remarkably consistent. Why do you think that might be?

Although the type of technology involved, Cuban brings about an interesting finding in the studies that he cites, and that is the level of education that technology is used in. For every study discussed, Cuban found that elementary instructors incorporated technology in their classrooms far more often than junior high school or high school teachers, who show decreased use as the grade level of students increases. Although the level of use varies significantly between grade levels, however as pointed out, the overall use of technology is low, and the study findings paint a far different picture than that of the political and popular media culture who would have the public believe that technology is and was an integral classroom component.

There are several reasons that this could be the case, and they are not what many outside of the educational field might tend to believe, which is that teachers are too “stubborn” to learn the new technology or embrace new trends in education, including the use of technology in the classroom. I actually have already outlined and discussed two of these reasons in my discussion of Cuban’s first chapter. In short, I feel that two major reasons for the lack of technology use in the classroom are; bureaucratic processes and paperwork that must be completed and submitted through appropriate channels and pipelines before a piece of technology may be introduced in to the classroom and used to instruct a lesson, and secondly, many times the technology is so complicated to use, set up, troubleshoot, take down and return, that many instructors feel their time is better spent utilizing alternative methods of instruction.

Of course, budget constraints are an obvious barrier to technology use in classrooms that plagues an overwhelming majority of schools today, and spreads to the university level as we experience a tremendous economic crunch. “New” technologies tend to be rather expensive, and without grants to fund multiple technology purchases, teachers often struggle with finding the time and logistics necessary to provide every student exposure to new technology while providing quality instruction to the other 24 students, while everyone is asking for help or instruction during their work. Even with a classroom full of technology for each student, I can attest that as a technology instructor, there are often such learning curves with particular technology or software that instruction becomes a cumbersome task that requires re-writing of the curriculum or course objectives.

As we have been discussing since the beginning of the course, technology use overwhelmingly depends on the user and their techniques for instructing utilizing technology.

Media comparison studies done between televised and non-televised lessons showed no significant difference in outcomes as measured by achievement tests. With what you know about this kind of research, is this a useful finding? Why/why not?

Cuban discusses this study in the opening chapters of the book, as well as the media comparison studies and the no significant difference phenomenon. When one considers the principle, no significant difference has no significant meaning. Basically, the entire principle deals with comparing two entirely different uses of technology (none vs. completely) as well as (difference good vs. difference bad). This literally addresses and gives life to the saying, “comparing apples to oranges,” which we all know is almost impossible, and completely meaningless in the grand scheme of things. No significant difference can mean that things are terrible and all students performed terribly in the technology classroom as well as the non-technology classroom, or that all students performed wonderfully in both classrooms. If there is no significant difference found, what does that mean, and why does it have any impact on anything? It’s like when you’re at the eye doctor and they ask you to compare 200 lenses that have no significant difference, but in their case, they still manage to find a prescription that works….maybe they should be in charge of these studies. Hmmm….

One would think that instead of comparing these apples to oranges, one would seek to compare things that are closely related. So, instead of comparing classrooms with and without technology, try to compare the “level” of technology use in a classroom, or the “method” of technology use to see which is producing a higher level of achievement. We can agree that by providing students with familiar objects and learning messages, students will retain and relate more information to the course objectives, which one could argue that technology can bring. It could be said then, that this study where the use and method of technology use would be more relevant given that technology is going to be utilized in the classroom in many forms, and this is usually a positive experience for students and instructors.

Cuban does an exception job at bringing the numbers and essential facts to the forefront for the reader to learn the concepts of educational technology’s history and significant benchmarks in development.

Cuban - Chapter 1 Discussion

Cuban writes about some themes that should seem familiar to current educational practice. Discuss them.

There are definitely some similarities and underlying themes in Cuban’s writing that relate directly to modern educational practices both in P-12 and post-secondary educational systems. His discussion of the barriers to providing adequate instructional technology equipment and practices in the classroom is the most prominent, where many of our current budget constraints as well as teacher disinterest in these methods cause hindrances for the implementation of technology. Cuban also hits upon the progressives and their very strong push to bring technology into the classroom and almost force the use of this equipment onto teachers and students, which only creates a tension that is unnecessary for the true delivery of lessons and the practice of learning.

In chapter 1, Cuban lists some figures and tables that are relative to the use of many of our technological advances today within the classroom. What comes to mind is the use of interactive tools such as “clickers,” as well as some equipment such as document cameras and/or webcams, and curriculum delivery web based applications that grade student work on a subjective basis with the use of keywords and programming. What I find as an information management instructor is that these are also many times considered “fads,” and technologies that have experienced their 15 minutes of fame, as film and radio were in the early Twentieth Century. However, I cannot say that some of these technologies are relevant and useful to the students and instructor, granted the instructor utilizes these technologies in a “best practices” manner that provides the most relevant instruction to students. There are several of our adjuncts who swear by the curriculum delivery programs that we “tried out” last year, however, I am willing to engage in a very strong debate regarding my feelings of their complete inadequacy and uselessness in the classroom. These adjuncts are good instructors, and apparently have found this technology a “good fit,” for them; however, I detest and cringe at the thought of even trying another piece of technology that resembles this software.

The other theme that Cuban addresses that is directly relatable to today’s classroom is the lack of teacher interest in using some of these technologies. As many educational “experts” who have never taught inside a classroom for one day would claim, this is simply a result of teacher “laziness” or “apathy” about using the technology. From my own experience, I have found that this is far from the truth with the exception of those teachers who are close to retirement and have decided to “coast” and rely on tenure to get them through, which is another topic for another course. Many times, the district has placed so many regulations and stipulations on the use of the technology that instructors simply find their time better spent dedicated to lesson preparation or other classroom duties. The technologies that are current and upcoming are in theory, great ideas and well-intentioned for educational use. However, unless they are being use on a continual basis, the set-up, training for users, and process of use is so time consuming that our time-starved classrooms simply choose to forego the “wasted time,” and choose something more familiar and consistent in our classrooms. There are several methods for solving this issue, from the loosening of regulations imposed by administration, to support staff to perform set-up and break-down tasks while instructors are engaged in other activities with students.

Cuban also echoes ideas mentioned in both Postman and Hughes. Discuss those ideas.

As Postman and Hughes exhibited somewhat polar views of technology, Cuban echoes those notions in a less obvious way providing the reader with a balanced view of technology that is solely devoted to its adoption and utilization in the classroom. Postman’s view of technology was that of a warning to all that at some point, technology would turn against humans and eventually destroy any evidence of human tradition or history at all, and control the human race for eternity. Cuban does not come close to Postman’s scare tactics, but does present the arguments brought forth by many noted people, such as Einstein, Dewey, Kilpatrick and others who had progressive views of education, and especially educational technology. As many of these notables predicted, technologies such as film and radio would become a replacement for teachers, and would be as efficient and perhaps more effective as traditional instruction of the day. In current times, we see this as completely false, and perhaps never will teachers be replaced with machinery even with the many technological advancements that have been made.

Cuban mentions a research study (p 13-14) that imputes a causal relationship between film use and student achievement. Research the terms "media comparison study" and "no significant difference research." What do you find?

From the brief research that I conducted, media comparison studies deal with the comparison of the effectiveness, efficiency, use, and distribution of the various types of media available to viewers. This type of study does not exclusively focus on the field of education, but is more of a general term describing the aspects of media types that can be compared and contrasted with those of other types of media. Hughes discusses a media comparison study of classrooms that utilized films as the experimental group, and a traditional classroom without the use of film where students were studying the same lesson with the same objectives. This study found that students exposed to the use of film in the classroom to teach a subject gleaned more positive results and a higher achievement level of those students where technology was used in the lesson.

No significant difference research came about as a direct result of the studies conducted by educational progressives of the time who wanted to compare the effectiveness of traditional courses delivered in a classroom with traditional methods as opposed to courses delivered via correspondence, radio or film, or other method that may be called distance learning using the vernacular of today. These studies caused the media comparison studies that spawned a continuing examination of media types and effectiveness that can be used for education, consumerism, marketing, and a plethora of other areas where people are involved directly with different forms of media consumption.

Cuban mentions these studies several times throughout chapter one and found that during his examination of these early media studies, the results are somewhat skewed, very disorganized, and at times, unreliable. However, they are all that current researchers have to go on, and with enough analyzation of data and examination of research instruments, evidence can be drawn from these that will support the media studies that are currently underway of educational technology’s historical foundations and practices.